GUIDE FOR AUTHORS Contributing to the Second Edition of The Jepson Manual and to the Jepson Flora Project

THE JEPSON FLORA PROJECT
Jepson Herbarium
University of California
Berkeley, California 94720
415-643-7008

Jepson Flora Project Editors:
Bruce G. Baldwin,
Steve Boyd,
Barbara J. Ertter,
David J. Keil,
Robert W. Patterson,
Thomas J. Rosatti,
Dieter Wilken

Jepson Flora Project Staff:

Bruce G. Baldwin, Convening Editor

bbaldwin@uclink4.berkeley.edu

Jeffrey Greenhouse, Project Research Specialist

jeffg@uclink.berkeley.edu
Interpretation of geographic subdivisions, modification of distributions, and nomenclatural issues.

Staci Markos, Project Manager and Development Coordinator

smarkos@socrates.berkeley.edu
Time-lines and tracking of treatments and illustrations.

Richard Moe, Database Manager

rlmoe@uclink4.berkeley.edu
Web site and electronic text and data management.

Thomas J. Rosatti, Scientific Editor

rosatti@berkeley.edu
Scientific content of treatments, electronic identification keys, nomenclatural issues, and questions related to the Guide.

Margriet Wetherwax, Managing Editor

margriet@berkeley.edu
Technical editing of treatments, illustration editor, and correspondence with authors

Submission address:
jepson_manual @ lists.berkeley.edu
Submission deadline:
December 31, 2005 (early submissions welcomed)  

CONTENTS

Part I. General Information

Introduction: coverage; approach for users, contributors; resources; other, future products

The Jepson Flora Project (JFP) is concerned with all aspects of continuing research on the flora of California. Among its projects and resources are the Jepson Online Interchange for California Floristics (http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/interchange.html), The Index to California Plant Names (http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/about_ICPN.html), A Flora of California Online (http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/jepson-project3.html), Electronic Identification Keys to California Plants (http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/keys/index.html), the SMASCH database (http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/dbbsmasch/), The Jepson Manual (1993), The Jepson Desert Manual (2002), and the second edition of The Jepson Manual (in prep.).

Like The Jepson Manual (TJM), the second edition of The Jepson Manual (TJM2) will be an illustrated guide to the identification of native and naturalized (see expanded definition in Glossary) vascular plants growing outside of cultivation in California. Any plant clearly demonstrating the potential to become naturalized outside of cultivation (e.g., commonly encountered garden escapes, waifs, or plants occurring spontaneously in crop fields, orchards, gardens, and urban settings) should be included in your treatment. Decisions about which of these to treat fully will be deferred until such time as we have a better idea about the ultimate size of the book. Any plants for which treatments are submitted under this guideline that are excluded because of space limitations will be included in the keys in TJM2, but otherwise will be fully treated only in the online accounts, as discussed at the end of this Introduction.

TJM2 will include in a single volume treatments of approximately 185 families, 1250 genera, and 7800 taxa at the level of species and below (terminal taxa), prepared by more than 150 specialists in several countries. In addition, it will accommodate the backgrounds and satisfy the needs of a broad spectrum of users, including students, environmental consultants, naturalists, and amateur as well as professional botanists. It will incorporate profound and extensive changes in taxonomy and nomenclature that have occurred since the publication of TJM in 1993, most of which have resulted either from refinements in taxonomic philosophy, or from dramatic increases in the quality and quantity of the information we have about the plant resources of the state. TJM2 will include revised names for taxa already known to occur in California (e.g., taxa treated in different genera since TJM), taxa previously known to science but not known from California (e.g., alien taxa whose naturalization in the state has been established since TJM), and taxa completely new to science since TJM. [Note: As discussed below, TJM2 will not include new names or combinations that have not been validly published elsewhere].

The diversity of users and severity of space constraints conspire to pose special difficulties, with the result that TJM2, like TJM before it, will differ in significant ways from other regional floras. Strict adherence to this guide will enable Authors to produce treatments in line with our goals and at the same time render manageable our task of unifying the contributions of a diverse group of Authors.

This guide has benefitted from trial and error as well as advice from experienced Contributors to, as well as users of, TJM. Even so, we continue to solicit comments and suggestions from Authors and are committed to finding mutually acceptable solutions to differences that may arise.

Our experience has indicated that there are many uncertainties in finalizing individual treatments and in preparing them for publication. In addition, in order to render manageable the task of producing a book with such a massive amount of information, it is necessary for us to distribute our efforts more or less evenly over time. Thus, in order to meet our commitment to publish TJM2 in 2008, we must operate under the rule that our agreement to use a contribution is automatically non-binding after the deadline for that treatment has passed.

Within the Jepson Flora Project, other resources of the Jepson Online Interchange for California Floristics, or Jepson Interchange, (http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/interchange.html) will continue to be developed and maintained in connection with work on TJM2. The Index to California Plant Names (ICPN), distribution maps, and species lists will be updated to reflect advances made in the preparation of treatments for TJM2.

Production of a full-fledged, electronic flora of California is another, long-term goal of the Jepson Flora Project. Such a resource will not need to be constrained as to content, so that it will be possible to display more complete and extensive floristic information than can be included in print, and especially in a field manual. Descriptions of morphology as well as of the habitats in which the plants occur, lists of alternate names (synonyms) under which the plants have been known, citations of specimens belonging to each taxon, illustrations, and photographs are some of the elements that will be much more extensive in the online flora. Contributed treatments will be "marked-up" by Jepson Flora Project Staff so that users will be able to generate lists of taxa satisfying a wide range of criteria (e.g., all plants with yellow flowers growing in vernal pools in GV), and to key out specimens using electronic, multiple-entry identification keys (see MEKA, below), with a few key strokes and clicks of a mouse. These and other plans for the management and presentation online of information about the flora of California were discussed in greater detail by Rosatti and Duncan (Floristic Information for California Tracheophytes (FISCT), Madroño 42:189–196. 1995).

Authors preparing treatments for TJM2 are encouraged to submit longer, more thorough and detailed treatments of their groups (as described above) for the online flora, following the same formats and conventions, as appropriate, presented here for TJM2. Those wishing to prepare electronic identification (MEKA) keys, or to evaluate such keys already available (http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/keys/index.html), should contact Tom Rosatti.

While we encourage the more detailed treatments for the online flora, electronic identification keys, complete synonymies, and other contributions to our floristic efforts, top priority is to be given to preparation of your treatment for TJM2. This is the only product currently with a deadline for completion, and the only one for which funds are being specifically raised.

Categories of Involvement and Corresponding Responsibilities

Jepson Flora Project Editors

Jepson Flora Project Staff

Family Editors

Contributors (Authors)

Consultants

External Reviewers

Scientific Advisory Board

Overview of Procedures: those involved in preparing, submitting, and finalizing treatments

In reading this guide bear in mind that it is addressed both to those highly experienced in the preparation of floristic treatments and to those for whom this is the first such involvement; we provide suggestions for all Authors as to how to conform most efficiently to our design and offer guidance for those who are unsure as to how to proceed.

Confer with us throughout your work, especially regarding taxa that you have not seen in the field and at junctures where you are uncertain of the next step. Make use of our familiarity with the California flora and our access to individuals who work extensively in the field. Also feel free to contact us with questions about finding or interpreting information in this Guide. Do not be afraid to let us see imperfect material; we understand how treatments evolve, having been through many drafts of our own work.

In considering the following, make special note of those elements requiring early attention.

1. Read this guide, including the Glossary, before beginning, so that you will know where to find answers to questions that will come up during the course of your work. Reading the guide once through will also help you develop a sense for the kind of treatment to be prepared, limits on what can be included, acceptable terms, taxonomic concepts, etc. Many Authors have commented that it is extremely helpful to refer to treatments already published in TJM (available online) while writing keys, descriptions, and associated material.
2. Become familiar with existing literature and other resources to complement your own knowledge about the group, to help identify areas of difficulty, and especially to become acquainted with potentially conflicting taxonomic views. Consult original descriptions, journal articles, monographs, and the various floras pertinent to western North America. Make use of the vast amount of information now available online, especially through the Jepson Online Interchange for California Floristics. In connection with the latter, consider everything included for your group in the Index to California Plant Names (ICPN), which includes new or potentially new names for your plants — resulting from either taxonomic or purely nomenclatural changes — as well as names of taxa that have been or possibly will be added to the flora of California. Only names that have been validly published will be used for recognized taxa in TJM2, so if your group requires the publication of new names or new combinations, the processes involved will have to be set into motion soon. For some taxa, it may be necessary to study type specimens.

   We will provide contact information for people who have expertise in your groups and who have agreed on that basis to act as Consultants. We encourage you to communicate with anybody who has knowledge of the plants covered by your treatments, and to let us know so that they can be properly acknowledged.

3. Collect important or interesting facts that will not be used in identification, such as those having to do with chemistry, cytology, medicinal uses, and positive or negative economic significance.
4. Study herbarium material immediately available to you first, in order to develop a sound plan for visiting herbaria and borrowing specimens. If you do not study a representative sampling of herbarium material, preparation of a treatment that is better than existing ones will be less likely. (See also "Loan Requests")
5. Write a preliminary draft of your treatment as early as possible, in order to identify problems and allow time for their resolution. Difficulties thought to be minor or nonexistent often prove to be otherwise once an attempt is made to put thoughts into words. Especially if you have not prepared a treatment for us before, it might be helpful to submit a draft of all or of part of the treatment to us for comments.
6. Investigate nomenclature when differences between the Index to California Plant Names (ICPN) and recent floristic accounts are not specifically addressed in ICPN (these should be rare), or when an issue is addressed but left unresolved in ICPN. In the past few years, extensive and detailed information has accumulated in ICPN that has resolved many questions about correct usage of plant names and citations of authors of plant names. Access to protologues (i.e., original descriptions of taxa) and type specimens is often difficult to obtain, so determine your needs early if your problem is either not addressed or not resolved in ICPN. Please inform us of any developments not addressed in ICPN, so we can keep this resource as current as possible.

   Lists of synonyms cannot be exhaustive, but should include names that have become synonyms since TJM (see "Synonyms, Misapplied Names, Illegitimate Names, Excluded Taxa"). Names that have not been validly published will not be used for recognized taxa in TJM2.

7. Check existing illustrations in TJM and The Jepson Desert Manual (TJDM) for accuracy as well as usefulness, and convey to us any concerns resulting from this effort.
8. Prepare and submit your final draft of your treatment, along with a covering letter in which areas requiring additional research and departures from conventional or previous taxonomy are summarized and justified. See Taxonomy and Nomenclature and "Computer and Network Issues".
9. Respond promptly to communications from us, especially evaluations or reviews of your treatments.
10. As time permits, verify the identifications of plants in your groups as represented on the CalPhotos website (http://calphotos.berkeley.edu/flora/) and contribute your own photographs to this resource.

Taxonomy and Nomenclature

Taxonomic Philosophy

Some of the changes that have been or will be proposed or confirmed since TJM result from changes in taxonomic philosophy, either on the part of individual specialists regarding their particular group or groups, or on the part of the Editors of the Jepson Flora Project regarding plant systematics and the flora of California as a whole. Some refinements in taxonomic philosophy have been adopted in light of the importance of floristic information to the management of lands and biological diversity in California, as such information is gathered and managed at UC/JEPS. One of these refinements has to do with ever-changing ideas about the relationship between evolution and classification in plants. Opinions do and probably always will vary on this subject, but an attempt is being made within the Jepson Flora Project to recognize only groups in which all members have evolved from a single, common ancestor (i.e., to recognize only monophyletic groups), insofar as is practical and to the extent that data bearing on this matter are available. Such a philosophy is in keeping with modern systematic practice as well as with the needs of biologists for classifications that reflect evolutionary relationships. Also, society in general needs classifications that are predictive; that is, that allow us to predict or suspect characteristics (e.g., medicinal uses) of a plant by understanding its evolutionary relationships. This criterion for recognition of taxonomic groups is not new, and it was certainly applied to some extent in TJM. What is new is the extent to which it now is being applied in the classifications we employ.

Taxonomic Concepts

Taxonomic concepts of equal scientific validity may differ with respect to rank (e.g., whether to recognize a particular group as a species, subspecies, or variety) or circumscription (e.g., whether to recognize one widely delimited species or to treat the same set of plants within multiple, more narrowly delimited species). Taxonomic concepts of equal validity may even differ regarding the position of a plant group (e.g., which genus a particular species belongs in), insofar as circumscriptions of higher-level taxa may differ. Such legitimate differences in taxonomic practice should not be misconstrued as a lack of rigor in systematics and do not take away from the fundamental reality of plant groups as evolutionary entities. A common feature of all taxonomic concepts recognized by The Jepson Flora Project and the modern systematic community in general is that the taxa being recognized should represent natural, evolutionary lineages. Also, because TJM2 will be used (like TJM) as a definitive resource for assessing plant diversity in California (e.g., for conservation planning by state and federal agencies), we seek to capture within it all biologically meaningful, minimal-rank taxa (e.g., species, subspecies, and varieties) recognized to occur in the California flora.

Our primary goal is to produce a guide for identification of plants by a wide spectrum of users, many of whom will be professional botanists, but most of whom will not be. Therefore, insofar as possible, keys and descriptions should emphasize features that are readily determined, and most frequently present. In contrast to TJM, morphologically indistinct or not very distinct taxa that differ most significantly in aspects of molecular biology, chemistry, cytology, physiology, or ecology, will be recognized and fully treated if such taxa represent evolutionary lineages that are well resolved and biologically distinct.

The following guidelines are intended to help minimize conceptual inconsistencies in taxonomy both within and between treatments. We do not intend to be dogmatic in these matters; we respect the judgment of Contributors because it is based on high levels of expertise in the groups involved.

Morphologically identical or indistinct (cryptic) taxa at the level of species and below that are well supported on the bases of multiple lines of non-morphological evidence may be recognized and fully treated, except that not all will be completely resolved in the keys. Please note that the Editors expect the Contributors to exercise considerable caution in formally recognizing cryptic taxa, and to reserve such status for evolutionary lineages that are biologically meaningful. Contributors should present in a covering letter to the Editors convincing evidence in support of any and all cryptic taxa to be recognized in the treatment(s) submitted. Taxa that do not differ in any readily determined morphological characteristics but that do differ consistently in geography and/or ecology may be separated (on the basis of such differences) in the keys, but those that differ only in molecular, chemical, cytological, physiological, or other non-morphological data will not. For such taxa, the key will lead to an indication that the unknown belongs to one of a list of taxa, the members of which may or may not constitute an evolutionary lineage, and the user will be directed from there to treatments of those taxa for further explanation.

Taxonomic Ranks (see also "Descriptions and Associated Matter")

Families

Genera

Species

Infraspecific Taxa

In general, within a given genus we would prefer to recognize either subspecies or varieties but not both. The rank decided upon should be that which requires the smallest number of nomenclatural changes (e.g., retention of the greatest number of epithets; formation of the smallest number of new combinations). In TJM, such considerations led to use of subspecies in Linanthus, but varieties in Trifolium.

In cases where taxa at two ranks below the level of species are recognized within a species, subspecies and variety are to be used, with variety subordinate to subspecies (as indicated by Art. 4.2, St. Louis Code). In such cases, relationships (infraspecific classifications) are to be indicated by placement of varieties, indented, under the appropriate subspecies, which in turn is (or are) indented under the species. Quadrinomials will not be used in such cases, even though they and even longer representations are permitted by the International Code of Nomenclature (ICBN), primarily because they do not qualify as names under the ICBN.

In cases where an Author does not wish to group varieties under subspecies within a species, and recognizing only subspecies or varieties within a species would require publication of new combinations, both subspecies and varieties may be used, but are to be listed alphabetically by epithet, all indented to the same degree, under the species.

Hybrids

Minor Variants

The number of minor variants treated in TJM2 may be considerably less than the number treated in TJM, primarily because of changes in taxonomic concepts (e.g., the recognition and inclusion of cryptic taxa in TJM2) and the fact that research conducted since TJM has resolved many of these issues, elevating some minor variants to full taxonomic treatment (as varieties, subspecies, or species) while reducing others to synonymy. Authors are encouraged to keep the number of minor variants in TJM2 to a minimum, by reserving the category only for cases in which the research necessary for resolution will not have been completed in time for inclusion in TJM2.

We encourage Authors to address further infraspecific variation, remaining problems in taxonomy and identification, and other important or interesting facts briefly after the account of minor variants. Bringing such matters to the attention of scientists and other interested users will lead to enhanced understanding of the flora of California, a primary objective of TJM2.

Synonyms, Misapplied Names, Illegitimate Names, Excluded Taxa

Synonyms

In addition to the foregoing, it is especially critical that all names used for taxa recognized in the Inventory of Rare and Endangered Vascular Plants of California, as maintained by the California Native Plant Society (CNPS) at http://www.cal.net/~levinel/cgi-bin/cnps/sensinv.cgi, as well as such names in the The California Natural Diversity Database (CNDDB), available at http://www.dfg.ca.gov/whdab/html/cnddb.html, be accounted for in some way in your treatment. Each and every name used (but not synonym given) for recognized taxa in these CNPS and CNDDB resources must appear in your treatment, either as a name for a recognized taxon, or as a synonym of such a name. In a cover letter accompanying your treatment, any and all differences between your taxonomy and those employed in these resources are to be explained.

Synonymy for the online flora can and should be exhaustive. Highest priority is to be given to the names used (not the synonyms given) in Munz, A Flora of Southern California (1974), since they were not consistently and thoroughly addressed in TJM. In addition to the Index to California Plant Names, we have posted Fred Hrusa's "Crosswalk" on the Jepson website ( ucjeps.berkeley.edu/db/crosswalk/ , as an aid to developing synonymies.

Misapplied Names

Illegitimate Names

Excluded Taxa

Language

Abbreviations

The abbreviations below were selected because they save considerable space, are relatively unambiguous, and are easily remembered. They will be used throughout TJM2, with the exception of introductory material. Words not appearing below will not be abbreviated, except that the official, two-letter, postal abbreviations for states in the United States and provinces and territories in Canada will be used. Abbreviations that will appear in both lowercase and capital letters are indicated. Periods are used only where their absence could cause confusion. Entries referring to parts of California are marked with asterisks and discussed more fully under Geography.

Afr = Africa
Am = Americas (w hemisphere)
ann = annual

b = born
Baja CA = Baja California
bien = biennial

c = central
CA-FP = California Floristic Province*
C.Am = Central America
Can = Canada
CaR = Cascade Range*
CaRF = Cascade Range Foothills*
CaRH = High Cascade Range*
CCo = Central Coast*
ChI = Channel Islands*
cm = centimeter
Co. = County
cos. = counties
cult = cultivated, cultivation
CW = Central Western California*

D = Desert Province* (not abbreviated as a general term)
diam = diameter
dm = decimeter
DMoj = Mojave Desert*
DMtns = Desert Mountains*
DSon = Sonoran (Colorado) Desert*

e = east(ern)
e-c = east-central
esp = especially
Eur = Europe
exc = except, excluding

fl, fls (FL, FLS) = flower(s), floral, flowering
fld = flowered
fr (FR) = fruit

GB = Great Basin Province*
gen = generally, mostly, usually
geog = geographic(al, ally)
GV = Great Central Valley*

incl = including, included (in)
infl, infls (INFL, INFLS) = inflorescence(s)

KR = Klamath Ranges*

lf (LF) = leaf
lfless = leafless
lflet = leaflet
lvs (LVS) = leaves

m = meter
MP = Modoc Plateau*
Medit = Mediterranean
Mex = Mexico
mm = millimeter
(M)mtn(s) = (M)mountain(s)

n = north(ern)
n-c = north-central
N.Am = North America
NCo = North Coast*
NCoR = North Coast Ranges*
NCoRH = High North Coast Ranges*
NCoRI = Inner North Coast Ranges*
NCoRO = Outer North Coast Ranges*
ne = northeast(ern)
NW = Northwestern California*
nw = northwest(ern)

occ = occasionally
orn = ornamental

per (not PER) = perennial herb (abbreviation only refers to perennial herb, not to the word "perennial" alone)
pl(s) (PL) = plant(s)
PR = Peninsular Ranges*

s = south(ern)
s-c = south-central
S.Am = South America
SCo = South Coast*
SCoR = South Coast Ranges*
SCoRI = Inner South Coast Ranges*
SCoRO = Outer South Coast Ranges*
ScV = Sacramento Valley*
se = southeast(ern)
sect(s). = section(s) (abbreviated only as taxonomic rank)
SN = Sierra Nevada*
SNE = East of Sierra Nevada*
SNF = Sierra Nevada Foothills*
SNH = High Sierra Nevada*
SnBr = San Bernardino Mountains*
SnFrB = San Francisco Bay Area*
SnGb = San Gabriel Mountains*
SnJt = San Jacinto Mountains*
SnJV = San Joaquin Valley*
sp. = species (singular)
spp. = species (plural)
st(s) (ST(S)) = stem(s)
subg. = subgenus, subgenera
subsect(s). = subsection(s)
subsp. = subspecies (singular)
subspp. = subspecies (plural)
SW = Southwestern California*
sw = southwest(ern)

Teh = Tehachapi Mountain Area*
temp = temperate
TR = Transverse Ranges*
trop = tropical, tropics

US = United States

var. = variety
vars. = varieties
vs = versus

w = west(ern)
w-c = west-central
W&I = White and Inyo Mountains*
WTR = Western Transverse Ranges*
Wrn = Warner Mountains*

yr(s) = year(s)

Symbols

The following symbols should be used whenever possible. Note that some or all might have broader meanings that those to which you are accustomed. Most are quantitative, referring to number, height, length, width, etc., while "±" may be qualitative as well, referring to color, fusion, symmetry, etc.

Note that "<<", "<", "=", ">", and ">>" do not include the concepts of "greatly exceeded by", "exceeded by", "held at the same level as", "exceeding", and "greatly exceeding", respectively, as defined in TJM. In TJM2, those concepts will be expressed in words. The symbols "<<", "<", "=", ">", and ">>" will be restricted in meaning to "much less than", "less than", "equal to", "greater than" and "much greater than", respectively, in number, size, length, or height. Use of these symbols to include the ideas of "exceeding" or "exceeded by" hopelessly confuses the concepts of absolute length and what it means for one structure to exceed another or not.

In TJM "<" and ">" also included the concepts of "less than or equal to" and "greater than or equal to", respectively. In TJM2, "<=" and ">=" instead will be used, respectively, for these ideas.

<<	much less than
<	less than
<=	less than or equal to
=	equal to, equal, equals (e.g., "sepals = petals" or "blade = petiole", but not "sepals equal" in the sense of sepals all equal to each other)
>=	greater than or equal to
>	greater than
>>	much greater than
0	none, absent
±	more or less, approximately, nearly, rather, slightly, somewhat; e.g., ± sessile may include sessile
°	degree of angle, compoundedness, or branching
×	multiplication sign, meaning "times" or indicating hybridity. The html code word "&times;", but not a lower- or upper-case x, may be substituted
-	hyphen, for: compound adjectives (e.g., 5-lobed, saucer-shaped, needle-like, red-brown, glandular-hairy, ovate-elliptic); in common names that are inconsistent with current taxonomy (e.g., Douglas-fir because Pseudotsuga is not currently included in Abies, fir), or in common names that are used as adjectives (e.g., lodgepole-pine forest, but not forest of lodgepole pine); to indicate (as a double hyphen or en-dash) quantitative ranges (e.g., "lvs 5–8 mm"); and to indicate intermediacy in condition (e.g., "lvs ovate-elliptic" means the leaves are intermediate between ovate and elliptic). Qualitative (non-quantitative) ranges are expressed with the word "to": "lvs ovate to elliptic" means the leaves range in shape from ovate to elliptic, possibly including ovate-elliptic.
[ ]	square brackets enclose information in descriptions pertaining only to members of a taxon (but not necessarily to all members of that taxon) occurring outside of California

Glossary

As in TJM, we have limited the number of technical terms to facilitate use of TJM2 by people who have not had formal training in botany. We have retained traditional, familiar botanical terminology primarily for concepts that are necessary in plant identification and that cannot be transmitted precisely in one or, rarely, two more commonly understood words (as compared with "one or a few more commonly understood words" in TJM). On the basis of this criterion, as well as other considerations, a limited but substantial number of terms have been added to the glossary as used in TJM. Communicate with us if you are unsure how to proceed after consulting the glossary below and the list of "Some Rejected Terms and Examples of Acceptable Alternatives" following.

Many of the terms listed below may be used in forms other than those given (e.g., bristle, bristly; petiole, petioled). Plurals are given in parentheses following the singular when they are relevant and their formation is unusual. Illustrations will be provided (in TJM2, but not in this guide) for some terms. Note that some definitions may be narrower or broader than those to which you are accustomed.

We recommend that you read the glossary to ensure that terms are used consistently with TJM2 definitions. Comparisons of definitions in various floristic works have revealed significant differences even in cases when none was suspected.

abaxial

The side or surface of a structure away from the axis on which the structure is borne (e.g., the lower surface of a leaf, the outer surface of a petal). (see adaxial)

abundant

Very likely present in appropriate habitats, sometimes forming dense stands. (see common , rare, uncommon)

achene

Dry, indehiscent, 1-seeded fruit from a 1-chambered ovary, sometimes winged, often appearing to be a naked seed. A 1-seeded dry fruit derived from an inferior ovary of > 1 carpel (e.g., Asteraceae, Dipsacaceae) is sometimes called a cypsela.

acid (acidic)

Soil or water with a low pH, often found in habitats such as coniferous forests and bogs where decomposition of plant remains liberates an excess of hydrogen ions.

acroscopic

In ferns, facing or directed toward the tip of the frond (e.g., on any pinna, acroscopic pinnules are those on the side closest to the frond tip). (see basiscopic, distal)

acuminate

Having a long-tapered, sharp tip, the sides concave. (see acute, awl-like)

acute

Having a short-tapered, sharp tip, the sides convex or straight and converging at less than a right angle. (see acuminate, obtuse)

adaxial

The side or surface of a structure toward the axis on which the structure is borne (e.g., the upper surface of a leaf, the inner surface of a petal). (see abaxial)

adherent

Sticking to and sometimes appearing fused to another part of like or unlike kind, but separable from it, such as "perianth adherent to fruit". (see appressed, fused)

adventitious

Arising at unusual times or places, such as roots on aerial stems.

aggressive

Growing or spreading rapidly or invasively, outcompeting other plants, difficult to control

alien

Not native; introduced purposely or accidentally into an area. (see native, naturalized, ruderal, waif)

alkali, alkaline

Soil or water with a high pH (i.e., basic), often found in areas where evaporation concentrates dissolved solutes.

alkali sink

Basin area in region of interior drainage characterized by soils with high salinity and high pH.

alluvial

Pertaining to sediments deposited by flowing water.

alluvial fan

Fan-shaped deposit of rocks, gravel, and finer sediments, in California generally on lower slopes of mountains.

alpine

Pertaining to the vegetational/altitudinal zone above timberline; zone above the subalpine.

alternate

1. Arranged singly, often spirally, along an axis — e.g., one leaf per node. (see opposite, whorled) 2. Occurring in different ranks, appearing to be between, not directly above or below, as "stamens alternate petals". (see rank)

angiosperm

Plant that bears flowers (hence, "flowering plant"), in which "vesseled seeds" (hence, angio-sperm) are enclosed in an ovary; woody to herbaceous.

annual

Completing life cycle (germination through death) in one year or growing season, generally non-woody. (see biennial, herb, perennial)

annulus (annuli)

On the sporangium of most ferns, a row of cells with partly thickened walls that functions in the release of spores.

anther

Pollen-bearing portion of a stamen, including one, two, or four pollen sacs. (see filament)

appressed

Parallel or nearly parallel to and often in contact with surface of origin; used to describe the disposition of hairs, leaves, pedicels, etc. (see adherent, fused)

aquatic

Growing under, in, or on water (generally fresh; if brackish, saline, or marine, so indicated), whether rooted in bottom or floating, and including plants with parts of shoots submersed but with other parts above water; excluding plants of seeps or wet rocks. (see emersed, submersed) (e.g., Potamogeton gramineus)

areole

1. In Cactaceae, a well-defined, axillary area (short shoot) generally bearing one to many spines and other, shorter structures (e.g., glands in Ferocactus cylindraceus, glochids in Opuntia). 2. In general, each of many areas defined by smallest veins on a leaf.

aril

Fleshy, corky, or bony appendage arising at or near the point of seed attachment, sometimes completely covering the seed.

armed

Bearing prickles, spines, or thorns.

ascending

Curving or angling upward from base, or about 30–60° less than vertical or away from axis of attachment. (see decumbent, erect)

asymmetric

Not divisible into identical or mirror-image halves. (see bilateral, biradial, radial)

auricle

In Poaceae, a structure, often lanceolate, projecting from both margins of the leaf lateral to the ligule. (see ligule)

awl-like

Narrow throughout, but broader at the base and tapered to a sharp tip. (see acuminate)

awn

1. Bristle-like appendage or elongation, generally terminal. 2. Stiff, needle-like pappus element in Asteraceae.

axil

Distal, adaxial angle between an appendage or branch and a main axis (e.g., between leaf and stem, or between lateral vein and midrib on a leaf).

axile

Pertaining to an axis, as of a placenta along the central axis in a compound ovary with more than one chamber.

axillary

Pertaining to or within an axil, especially a leaf axil.

axis (axes)

Line of direction, growth, or extension; structure occupying such a position — e.g., the main stem of a plant or inflorescence, the midrib of a leaf.

banner

Uppermost, often largest petal of many members of Fabaceae.

bar

A mound-like temporary deposit of sand or gravel in the channel or mouth of a waterway.

barbed

Having sharp, normally downward- or backward-pointing projections. Said of an awn, bristle, or other structure.

bark

Tough tissue (including phloem) covering the wood (hardened xylem) of subshrubs, shrubs, trees, and some vines. (see wood)

barren

An area in which vegetation is sparse due to harsh or limiting growing conditions, such as those associated with shallow, infertile, rocky soil.

basal

At or near the base of a plant or plant part. Especially said of leaves clustered near the ground or of a placenta confined to the base of an ovary.

basiscopic

In ferns, facing or directed toward the base of the frond (e.g., on any pinna, basiscopic pinnules are those on the side closest to the frond base). (see acroscopic, proximal)

bell-shaped

Widening more or less abruptly at the base and then generally more gradually toward the tip. (see urn-shaped)

berry

Fleshy, indehiscent fruit in which the seeds are generally more than 1 and are not encased in a stone. (see drupe, pome) (e.g., Solanum americanum)

biennial

Completing life cycle (germination through death) in two years or growing seasons (generally flowering only in the second), non-woody (at least above ground), often with a rosette the first growing season. (see annual, herb, perennial)

bilateral

Divisible into mirror-image halves in only one way. (see asymmetric, biradial, radial)

biradial

Divisible into mirror-image halves in two ways; isobilateral. (see asymmetric, bilateral, radial)

bisexual

Both male and female reproductive parts occurring and functional in the same plant or structure (e.g., flower, spikelet, inflorescence). (see unisexual, pistillate, staminate, dioecious, monoecious)

blade

Expanded portion of a leaf, petal, or other structure, generally flat but sometimes rolled, cylindric, wavy, or cupped.

brackish

Somewhat salty, generally a mixture of saline and fresh water.

bract

1. Generally reduced, leaf- or scale-like structure subtending a branch, cone scale, peduncle, pedicel, or flower. 2. Generally reduced, leaf- or scale-like structure on a peduncle or scape that may or may not subtend another structure (see bractlet)

bractlet

1. Relatively small, generally secondary bract within an inflorescence. 2. Bract-like structure on a pedicel that may or may not subtend another structure. (see bract)

bristle

1. Relatively large, generally stiff, more or less straight hair. (e.g., Navarretia breweri) 2. In Asteraceae, fine, cylindric or minutely flattened pappus element (e.g., Calycoseris parryi) or epidermal outgrowth on the receptacle (e.g., Centaurea solstitialis).

bud

1. An incompletely developed, more or less embryonic shoot, usually covered with bud scales. 2. An unopened flower, often protected by sepals.

bulb

Short underground stem and the fleshy leaves or leaf bases attached to and surrounding it (e.g., an onion). (see stem, corm, caudex, tuber)

bulblet

1. Small bulb generally produced at the base of a bulb. 2. Any small, bulb-like structure that propagates a plant, often in a leaf or bract axil.

bur

Fruit or fruiting inflorescence with awns or bristles, often barbed. (e.g., Xanthium strumarium)

callus

1. In some Poaceae, enlarged or projected hard base of floret; sometimes hairy or sharp-pointed. (see floret) 2. A firm protuberance.

calyx (calyces)

Collective term for sepals; outermost or lowermost whorl of flower parts, generally green and enclosing remainder of flower in bud. Sometimes indistinguishable from corolla.

canescent

Covered with dense, fine, generally grayish white hairs. (e.g., Phoenicaulis cheiranthoides leaf)

capsule

Dry fruit from compound pistil, nearly always dehiscent (irregularly or by pores, slits, or lines of separation). (see circumscissile, loculicidal, septicidal)

carpel

The basic female structure of a flower, evolved from a fertile leaf. Carpels are free or variously fused into a compound pistil, the number of carpels then often equal to the number of stigmas, styles, or chambers of the ovary. (see pistil)

cartilaginous

thickened, usually whitish, sometimes flexible; in ferns, applied especially to margins of blades.

catkin

Spike or spike-like (e.g., Alnus) inflorescence of unisexual flowers with inconspicuous perianths (generally wind-pollinated), usually pendent and often with conspicuous bracts.

caudex (caudices)

Generally short, sometimes woody, more or less vertical stem of a perennial, at or beneath ground level. (see stem, bulb, corm, tuber)

cauline

Pertaining to structures, especially leaves, borne along (i.e., not confined to the base of) an elongate, above-ground stem; not basal.

centimeter

One-hundredth of a meter; 10 millimeters (abbreviation: cm).

cespitose

Having a densely clumped, tufted, matted, or cushion-like growth form.

chamber

Compartment or cavity within an ovary, capsule, or other hollow structure.

chaparral

Vegetation dominated by mostly evergreen shrubs with thick, leathery leaves and stiff branches.

ciliate

Having generally straight, conspicuous hairs along margins or edges.

circumboreal

Occurring around the world at northern latitudes.

circumscissile

Dehiscence, usually of a fruit (capsule), by a transverse line, the top coming off as a lid. (see loculicidal, septicidal)

claw

Stalk-like base of some free or nearly free sepals or petals. (see limb)

cleistogamous

Bud-like, unopening flowers that are generally self-fertilized.

clone

Genetically identical individuals resulting from asexual reproduction (fragmentation of rhizomes or stolons, budding, etc.); often used for an apparent population, the members of which are or were connected (e.g., aspens, cattails, duckweeds, sumacs).

closed-cone coniferous forest or woodland

Vegetation dominated by species of Pinus or Cupressus in which the seed cones persist unopened on the branches for extended periods of time.

coastal redwood forest

Vegetation dominated by Sequoia sempervirens, occurring on slopes and canyons of coastal mountain ranges.

coastal scrub

Coastal vegetation dominated mostly by shrubs with flexible branches, e.g., Baccharis pilularis, Artemesia californica

coastal strand

Beach and foredune habitat, characterized by sandy soils, strong winds, salt spray, and wave action.

collar

1. In Poaceae, the abaxial junction of leaf sheath and blade. 2. Raised, inflated, or wing-like, encircling projection (e.g., the seeds of Delphinium luteum, D. nudicaule)

column

Structure at the center of an orchid flower formed by fusion of stamen(s) and style.

common

Likely present in appropriate habitats. (see abundant, rare, uncommon)

compound

1. Composed of two or more parts, as a compound leaf composed of leaflets (see compound leaf) or a compound pistil composed of fused or partly fused carpels. 2. Repeating a structural pattern (a compound umbel is an umbel of umbels). (see simple)

compound leaf

A leaf divided into distinct parts. In a 1-compound leaf, the blade is divided into primary leaflets connected by an axis but no blade material, in a 2-compound leaf, the primary leaflets are so divided into secondary leaflets, etc. (see palmate, pinnate, lobed, dissected)

compressed

Flattened side-to-side or front-to-back. (see depressed)

concave

Hollowed or indented, as the interior of a curved surface. (see convex)

cone

Reproductive structure composed of an axis, scales, and sometimes bracts. 1. Non-woody structure producing spores (e.g., clubmosses, horsetails) or pollen (e.g., male cone of conifers). 2. Generally woody structure producing seeds (e.g., female cones of most conifers). (e.g., Abies concolor)

conic

Three-dimensional, defined by a wide, more or less round base, the sides evenly tapered to a narrow tip.

coniferous forest

Vegetation dominated by trees belonging to various species of conifers (e.g., firs, pines, redwoods).

continuous

Having parts spaced evenly and without interruption, not clumped; pertaining especially to inflorescences in which the flowers are evenly spaced. (see interrupted)

convex

Rounded outward, as the exterior of a curved surface. (see concave)

cordate

Heart-shaped; often pertaining to a leaf in which the blade base on both sides of the petiole is rounded and convex. (see reniform)

corm

Short, thick, unbranched, underground stem often surrounded by dry (not fleshy) leaves or leaf bases. (see bulb, stem) (e.g., Muilla maritima)

corolla

Collective term for petals; whorl of flower parts immediately inside or above calyx, often large and brightly colored. Sometimes indistinguishable from calyx.

costa

In ferns, primary axis of a pinna.

costule

In ferns, primary axis of a pinnule.

costulet

In ferns, primary axis of a pinnulet.

cotyledon

Seed-leaf; a modified leaf present in the seed, often functioning for food storage. Persistent in some annuals and of aid in their identification. (e.g., Lupinus microcarpus)

crenate

Pertaining to margins with shallow, rounded teeth, between which are usually acute sinuses (i.e., scalloped)

cylindric

Elongate, with parallel sides and, at any point, round in transverse section.

cyme

1. In flowering plants excluding Asteraceae and some other groups, a branched inflorescence in which the central or uppermost flower opens before the peripheral or lowermost flowers on any axis. see panicle)
2. In Asteraceae and some other groups, a cyme-like inflorescence is one in which the central or uppermost inflorescence units (e.g., heads in Asteraceae, umbels enclosed by involucres in Eriogonum), instead of individual flowers, develop and mature before the peripheral or lowermost inflorescence units on any axis.

deciduous

Falling off naturally. 1. Pertaining to leaves that all fall seasonally, or to plants that are seasonally leafless. (see evergreen) 2. Pertaining to structures, such as hairs or flower parts, that fall early or readily.

decimeter

One-tenth of a meter; 10 centimeters (abbreviation: dm).

decumbent

Lying mostly flat on the ground but with tips curving up. (see ascending, prostrate)

decurrent

Pertaining to a wing-like or ridge-like extension basal to the apparent or actual point of attachment, particularly a leaf base that appears to continue onto the stem.

dehiscent

Opening at maturity to release contents; usually pertaining to anthers or fruits. (see indehiscent)

deltate

More or less equilaterally triangular, with the corners rounded or not.

dense

Congested or compact; especially pertaining to the disposition of flowers in an inflorescence. (see open)

dentate

Having margins with sharp, relatively coarse teeth pointing outward, not tipward. (see serrate)

depressed

Flattened from above and below, or with the center lower than the margins. (see compressed)

desert

Region and associated communities characterized by low and irregular precipitation and prolonged periods of drought.

desert woodland

Vegetation in desert region or on slopes of adjacent mountains dominated by small, drought-tolerant trees; may be classified by dominant species (e.g., Joshua tree woodland dominated by Yucca brevifolia, pinyon/juniper woodland dominated by Pinus monophylla and Juniperus sp.).

digitate

In Poaceae, pertaining to an inflorescence of two or more spike-like branches attached at the same point at the apex of the inflorescence stalk.

dioecious

Pertaining to a taxon in which individuals produce either male or female reproductive structures, and do not produce bisexual reproductive structures. (see monoecious) (e.g., Salix laevigata)

diploid

Having two sets of chromosomes (maternal and paternal); 2n. (see haploid, n, polyploid)

disciform head

In Asteraceae, a head composed of disk flowers and marginal pistillate (or sterile) flowers with minute or missing laminae, superficially similar to discoid head. (see discoid head, liguliflorous head, radiant head, radiate head)

discoid head

In Asteraceae, a head composed entirely of disk flowers. (see disciform head, liguliflorous head, radiant head, radiate head)

disk

Fleshy, often nectar-secreting structure near (often surrounding) an ovary or style base

disk flower

In Asteraceae, a generally bisexual (occasionally staminate or sterile, never pistillate), generally radial flower with a 5- (rarely 4-) lobed corolla; appearing without other flower types (in discoid head), or with marginal flowers of a different type (in radiate, radiant, or disciform heads). (see ligulate flower, ray flower)

dissected

Deeply, often sharply cut but not compound; usually pertaining to leaves. (see compound leaf, leaflet, lobe, segment) (e.g., Cymopteris deserticola)

distal

Farther away from the base, origin, or point of attachment, or closer to the edge or tip. (see proximal)

drupe

Fleshy or pulpy, indehiscent, superficially berry-like fruit in which 1 seed is encased in a stone (as in cherries), or more than 1 seed is encased in an equal number of free or variously fused stones (as in manzanitas). (see berry, nut, pome, stone) (e.g., Prunus emarginata fruit)

dune

Hill or ridge of sand formed by the wind.

dune scrub

Vegetation dominated by shrubs growing on stabilized dunes.

e-

A prefix meaning without, lacking -- e.g., in Asteraceae, an epaleate receptacle is one that lacks paleae.

ellipsoid

In the shape of a flattened or elongated circle, widest at the middle and tapered equally to both ends, in three dimensions, as a fruit; wider than linear (see elliptic, linear, oblong)

elliptic

In the shape of a flattened or elongated circle, widest at the middle and tapered equally to both ends, in two dimensions (i.e., in one plane), as a leaf; wider than linear (see ellipsoid, linear, oblong)

emergent

Pertaining to a plant normally rooted underwater and extending above the water surface, or to a part of such a plant normally held above the water surface. (see aquatic, submersed) (e.g., Polygonum amphibium)

endemic

Native to and restricted to a defined geographic area.

entire

Having margins that are continuous and smooth (i.e., without teeth, lobes, etc.).

ephemeral

Lasting a short time. 1. Pertaining to individual plants, completing the life cycle (germination through death) or growth cycle in much less than one year. 2. Pertaining to plant parts, falling early or remaining functional for a relatively short time (e.g., less than a day for flower parts).

epidermis

Outermost cell layer (or layers) of non-woody plant parts.

epipetalous

Pertaining to stamens that are fused to the petals to various extents and therefore appear to arise from them.

erect

Upright; vertically oriented. (see ascending)

estuarine

Pertaining to aquatic habitats where freshwater from streams mixes with sea water in a protected area, resulting in a gradation of brackish waters with varying degrees of salinity.

evergreen

Never leafless; usually pertaining to leaves that remain green and on the plant for more than one season, and that do not all fall seasonally, or to plants that are never leafless. (see deciduous)

exceeding

Surpassing tipward, due to relative orientation or length of the structures involved (e.g., lateral branches exceeding inflorescences; hoods exceeded by anther head in Asclepias californica; hoods slightly exceeding anther head in Asclepias erosa). (see exserted)

exserted

Protruding out of surrounding structure(s) (e.g., stamens exserted from corolla). (see exceeding, included)

extant

Currently existing or surviving somewhere. (see extinct, extirpated)

extinct

No longer existing or surviving anywhere. (see extant, extirpated)

extirpated

No longer existing or surviving in a defined geographic area, as either a direct or indirect result of human activity. (see extant, extinct)

exudate

Material discharged (exuded) from a plant, often with characteristic odor, color, or texture (e.g., sticky, gummy, slippery).

fertile

Reproductively functional; pertaining to a plant or plant part that produces or is associated with the production of functional spores, pollen, ovules, or seeds (e.g., fertile frond, fertile stamen, fertile flower, fertile floret). (see sterile)

fibrous

1. Pertaining to structures that are composed at least in part of more or less thread-like but usually tough elements (e.g., Yucca leaves). 2. Pertaining to a root system composed of many roots similar in length and thickness (e.g., grass roots). (see taproot)

filament

Anther-stalk portion of a stamen, often thread-like.

fleshy

Thick and juicy; succulent. (e.g., Sesuvium verrucosum)

floret

In Poaceae, a single flower and its immediately subtending bracts (lemma and generally palea, the lemma subtending the palea when the latter is present); in a sterile floret, the flower and sometimes palea are rudimentary or absent. (see glume, lemma, palea, spikelet)

follicle

Dry fruit from a simple pistil, dehiscent on only one side, along a single suture. A single flower may develop into a simple fruit of 1 follicle or an aggregate fruit of several follicles. (see capsule)

foothill

Slope at the base of a mountain; especially applied to such features in CA-FP.

foothill woodland

Vegetation in foothills dominated by small- to medium-sized trees, composed of one or more species of Quercus, often mixed with Pinus sabiniana and/or Aesculus californica.

forest

Vegetation dominated by closely spaced ± tall trees; with more canopy cover than a woodland (canopies often overlap).

forked

Pertaining to a hair or other structure that branches into two parts. (see stellate)

free

Neither fused to nor adherent to other parts; distinct, separate.

free-central

Pertaining to a placenta along the central axis in a compound ovary with only one chamber. (see axile, basal, parietal)

fringed

Having ragged or finely cut margins.

frond

In ferns, a leaf, often compound or dissected, borne on a rhizome.

fruit

An ovary or ovaries and sometimes associated structures after ovule fertilization (i.e., seed initiation). A simple fruit develops from one ovary (e.g., cherry, apple, the latter derived largely from the hypanthium); aggregate and multiple fruits develop from ovaries of one and more than one flower, respectively, that remain distinct yet held together as a unit (e.g., a strawberry is an aggregate fruit of achenes held together by a juicy, red flower receptacle; a fig is a multiple fruit of achenes surrounded by a fleshy inflorescence receptacle.

funnel-shaped

Widening from the base more or less gradually through the throat into an ascending, spreading, or recurved limb; often applied to a fused calyx or corolla.

fused

United, as the petals together into a corolla tube or stamens onto petals; neither free nor adherent.

fusiform

Elongate, widest at the middle, tapered to both ends.

glabrous

Without hairs.

gland (glandular)

A small, often spheric body, on or embedded in the epidermis or at the tip of a hair, that exudes a generally sticky substance. (e.g., Psorothamnus arborescens)

glaucous

Covered with a generally whitish or bluish, waxy or powdery film that is sometimes easily rubbed off.

glochid

A reduced, barbed, deciduous, bristle-like spine.

glume

In Poaceae, each of generally two sheathing bracts that are the lowermost parts of a spikelet, subtending one or more florets. (see floret, lemma, palea, spikelet)

graduated

In Asteraceae, pertaining to an involucre in which the phyllaries are of unequal length, with the outer shortest, the inner longest, and a gradual transition through multiple series between.

granular

Covered with minute bumps. (see papillate, tubercle)

grassland

Vegetation dominated by various species of grasses, often mixed with various other kinds of herbs (not grasses) and sometimes scattered, low-growing shrubs.

gymnosperm

Plant that bears woody or fleshy cones, not flowers, in which "naked seeds" (hence, gymno-sperm) are not enclosed in an ovary; woody, including e.g., pine, sequoia, ephedra, yew.

habit

Characteristic mode of growth, general form, or shape of a plant (e.g., cespitose, herb, scapose, shrub).

habitat

Natural setting or conditions under which a plant lives (e.g., saltbush scrub, vernal pool, granitic soil among pines, montane forest).

hair

Thread-like epidermal outgrowth. (see glabrous, canescent, ciliate, prickle, puberulent, scabrous, scale, strigose, tomentose)

haploid

Having one set of chromosomes (maternal or paternal); n. (see diploid, n, polyploid)

hastate

Arrowhead-shaped, with two basal lobes oriented more or less perpendicularly to the long axis. (see sagittate)

head

1. A dense, often spheric inflorescence of sessile or subsessile flowers.
2. In Asteraceae and some other groups, a head-like inflorescence is one in which sessile or subsessile inflorescence units (e.g., heads in Asteraceae, umbels enclosed by involucres in Eriogonum), instead of individual flowers, are attached in a short dense cluster without an evident axis or branches.

hemispheric

Shaped like a dome or half sphere.

herb

Plant that, at least above ground, is generally non-woody and of less than one year or growing season in duration. (see annual, biennial, perennial, subshrub)

herbaceous

Lacking wood; having the characteristics of an herb.

herbage

The above-ground, non-woody parts of a plant, including especially the leaves and young stems taken together, excluding flowers and fruits.

heterostylous

Pertaining to a taxon in which individual plants produce only one of two or more flower types, each differing in style (and generally stamen) length.

hypanthium (hypanthia)

Structure generally in the shape of a tube, cup, or bowl, derived from the fused lower portions of the perianth and stamens, from which these parts seem to arise, and to which the ovary wall is fused in an inferior ovary (to which the ovary wall is partially fused in a half-inferior ovary; from which the ovary is free in a superior ovary).

included

Not protruding out of surrounding structure(s) (e.g., stamens included in corolla). (see exserted)

indehiscent

Not opening inherently to release contents; usually pertaining to fruits. (see dehiscent)

indusium (indusia)

In many ferns, a veil- or scale-like outgrowth of the leaf surface that covers a sorus.

inferior ovary

An ovary that is fused to the fused lower portions of the perianth and stamens (i.e., to the hypanthium), to the extent that these structures appear to arise at or above its summit (see superior ovary)

inflorescence

An entire cluster or aggregation of flowers and associated structures (e.g., axes, bracts, bractlets, pedicels); often difficult to determine as to type and boundaries but generally excluding full-sized foliage leaves.

infraspecific

Below the species level or within a species; pertaining to variation within a species, whether taxonomically significant (i.e., characterizing subspecies or varieties) or not (e.g., characterizing forms or minor variants).

intergrade

To merge gradually from one extreme to another through a more or less continuous series of intermediates.

intermediate

Between extremes or parental taxa in size, shape, color, flowering time, habitat preferences, geographic ranges, or other ways.

internode

Segment of an axis (generally a stem) between successive positions (nodes) from which one or more structures (especially leaves, buds, branches, or flowers) arise.

interrupted

Having parts spaced unevenly, clustered; pertaining especially to inflorescences in which the flowers are clustered. (see continuous)

intertidal

Pertaining to marine habitats that are submerged at high tide and exposed at low tide.

involucel

A secondary involucre (group of bracts) within an inflorescence (e.g., those subtending the secondary umbels in members of Apiaceae).

involucre

Group of bracts more or less held together as a unit, subtending a flower, fruit (acorn cup), or inflorescence.

keel

1. Ridge or crease more or less centrally located on the long axis of a structure, generally on the abaxial side. 2. The two lowermost, fused petals of many members of Fabaceae.

lamina (laminae)

In Asteraceae, the strap- or fan-shaped outer portion of the corolla of a ray flower, with generally 3 (sometimes 0, 2, or 4) lobes, or the similarly shaped, 3-lobed outer lip of the 2-lipped corolla of Trixis and Acourtia.

lanceolate

Narrowly elongate, widest in the basal half, often tapered to an acute tip.

lateral

Pertaining to the sides(s) of a structure; e.g., laterally compressed (flattened side-to-side), lateral branch, lateral appendage. (see terminal)

leaf

Organ arising from a stem, generally composed of a stalk (petiole) and a flat, expanded, green, photosynthetic area (blade); distinguished from a leaflet by the presence in its axil of a bud, branch, thorn, or flower; sometimes with lateral, basal appendages (stipules); either simple (toothed, lobed, or dissected but not divided into leaflets) or compound (divided into leaflets).

leaflet

A leaf-like unit of a compound leaf; distinguished from a leaf by the absence in its axil of a bud, branch, thorn, or flower; lacking lateral, basal appendages (stipules); either simple (leaf 1-compound, with primary leaflets) or compound (leaf 2-compound, with primary and secondary leaflets; 3-compound, with primary, secondary, and tertiary leaflets, etc).

legume

In Fabaceae (legume family), a dry or somewhat fleshy, one- to many-seeded fruit from a simple pistil, typically dehiscent longitudinally along two sutures and splitting into halves that remain joined at the base, sometimes indehiscent or breaking crosswise into one-seeded segments; a plant with such a fruit.

lemma

In Poaceae, the lower, generally larger of two sheathing bracts subtending a flower, generally ensheathing the palea (in a sterile lemma, the associated flower and sometimes palea are rudimentary or absent); with the palea and flower, comprising the floret. (see floret, glume, palea, spikelet)

lenticel

Each of many spongy or calloused areas of various shapes, sizes, and colors, most commonly on surfaces of young stems (including twigs) or fruits.

lenticular

Lens- or discus-shaped, with both major sides convex.

ligulate flower

In Asteraceae, a bisexual, bilateral flower with the outer portion of the corolla (the ligule) strap- or fan-shaped, 5-lobed; appearing only with other ligulate flowers in a liguliflorous head. (see disk flower, ray flower)

ligule

1. In Asteraceae, the 5-lobed, strap- or fan-shaped outer portion of the corolla of a ligulate flower. 2. In most Poaceae and some other grass-like plants, an appendage at the adaxial junction of leaf sheath and blade, generally membranous, sometimes formed of hairs. 3. In Isoetes and, more obscurely, in Selaginella, a membrane that wholly or partially covers a sporangium.

liguliflorous head

In Asteraceae, a head composed entirely of ligulate flowers. (see disciform head, discoid head, radiant head, radiate head)

limb

In calyces or corollas with fused sepals or petals, the expanded, often lobed portion distal to the tube or throat; in some free or nearly free sepals and petals, the expanded portion distal to the stalk-like base (claw).

linear

Elongate, with nearly parallel sides; narrower than elliptic or oblong.

lip

1. Upper or lower of two parts in a bilateral, unequally divided calyx or corolla. 2. In Orchidaceae, generally the largest, lowest, most highly modified perianth part.

lobe

1. A major expansion or bulge, such as on the margin of a leaf, sepal, or petal, or on the surface of an ovary. 2. The free tips of otherwise fused structures, such as sepals or petals; larger than teeth.

loculicidal

Pertaining to dehiscence of a fruit (capsule) by a longitudinal line through the wall at or near the center of each chamber, such that each resulting segment corresponds to the two adjacent halves of two adjacent chambers, usually with a placenta-bearing septum centrally. (see circumscissile, septicidal)

longitudinal

Pertaining to length or the lengthwise dimension; parallel to the axis. (see transverse)

margin

The edge, generally of a leaf or perianth part.

marsh

Permanently or periodically inundated, mostly or completely treeless vegetation dominated by semi-aquatic herbs or subshrubs.

meadow

Open grass- or sedge-dominated vegetation more or less surrounded by woodland or forest; meadow soils are generally seasonally moist and frequently are composed of fine-grained sediments.

membranous

Thin, dry or moist, pliable, often more or less translucent or variously colored, sometimes green. (see scarious) (e.g., Leymus cinereus ligule)

mericarp

One of the (generally dry, indehiscent, 1-seeded) parts into which certain fruits (e.g. those of Apiaceae) separate at maturity.

meter

Basic unit of length in the metric system, equal to 39.4 inches, slightly more than a yard (abbreviation: m).

millimeter

One-thousandth of a meter; one-tenth of a centimeter (abbreviation: mm).

mixed evergreen forest

Vegetation dominated by a variable mixture of mostly or only hardwood tree species, most of which retain their leaves throughout the year.

monoecious

Pertaining to a taxon in which individuals produce both male and female reproductive structures, and do not produce bisexual reproductive structures. (see dioecious) (e.g., Alnus rhombifolia)

monolete spore

In spore-bearing plants, bilaterally symmetric spore on which the scar is linear and unbranched.

montane

Pertaining to mountains; vegetational/altitudinal zone between the foothill and subalpine zones.

mucro (mucronate)

An abrupt, short, sharp, narrow, terminal point, tip, or projection.

n

Number of chromosomes in haploid cells. (see diploid, polyploid)

native

Occurring naturally in an area, as neither a direct nor indirect consequence of human activity; indigenous; not alien. (see naturalized, waif)

naturalized

Alien (not native) and reproducing either sexually (e.g., by spores, seeds) or vegetatively (e.g., by sprouts, suckers) in the absence of any benefit, intentional or not, direct or indirect, of human activity, and thereby persisting beyond initial generation or establishment. (see native, waif)

nectar

A sugary solution, produced in nectaries, consumed primarily as an energy source by animal visitors, usually pollinators.

nectary

Variously shaped, nectar-producing structure(s) usually at or near the base of the inside of a flower (or sometimes elsewhere, such as in a perianth spur or on a petiole). (e.g., Symphoricarpos rotundifolius)

needle

A narrowly linear, often waxy, generally evergreen leaf, especially of conifers.

node

Position on a stem from which one or more structures (especially leaves, buds, branches, or flowers) arise. (see internode)

nut

Mostly dry, sometimes fleshy or pulpy, usually indehiscent fruit in which a single seed is encased in a hard shell. (see drupe) (e.g., Quercus palmeri)

nutlet

Small, dry nut or nut-like fruit, usually several of which are produced by a single flower. (see nut, drupe) (e.g., Boraginaceae, Lamiaceae)

ob-

A prefix indicating inversion of shape — e.g., lanceolate and oblanceolate leaf blades are widest below and above the middle, respectively.

oblique

Having unequal sides or an asymmetric base.

oblong

Longer than wide, with nearly parallel sides; wider than linear. (see elliptic)

obtuse

Having a short-tapered, blunt tip or base, the sides convex or straight and converging at more than a right angle. (see acute)

ocrea (ocreae)

A generally scarious sheath around the stem formed by the fusion of stipules.

open

Uncongested or diffuse; especially pertaining to the disposition of flowers in an inflorescence. (see dense)

opposite

1. Arranged in pairs along an axis — e.g., two leaves per node. (see alternate, whorled). 2. Occurring in the same rank, directly above or below, as "stamens opposite petals". 3. Located directly across from.

ovary

Ovule-bearing, usually wider, basal portion of pistil, normally developing into a fruit as ovules become seeds; may be simple (one carpel, one chamber) or compound (two or more carpels, one or more chambers).

ovary stalk (fruit stalk)

A pedestal-like, apical prolongation of a floral receptacle (often termed elsewhere a carpophore) or basal constriction of an ovary (often termed elsewhere a gynophore), above the level of perianth insertion, each with the result that the ovary or fruit appears to be stalked over and above the pedicel (whereas the demarcation between pedicel and ovary- or fruit-stalk is observable as the point of perianth insertion, carpophores generally are distinguished from gynophores only by anatomical study).

ovate

Egg-shaped (i.e., widest below the middle) in two dimensions (i.e., in one plane), as a leaf. (see ovoid)

ovoid

Egg-shaped (i.e., widest below the middle) in three dimensions, as a fruit. (see ovate)

ovule

In gymnosperms and angiosperms, structure containing an egg, and normally developing into a seed after fertilization.

palea (paleae, paleate)

1. In Asteraceae, a scale-like bract that subtends an individual flower on the receptacle (equal to "chaff scale" in TJM), absent in some genera, restricted to a ring separating ray and disk flowers in most tarweed species. 2. In Poaceae, the distal, generally smaller of two sheathing bracts subtending a flower, generally two-veined and -keeled and ensheathed by the lemma; with the lemma and flower, comprising the floret.(see floret, glume, lemma, spikelet)

palmate

More than two structures or parts (e.g., veins, lobes, or leaflets) radiating from a common point in two dimensions (i.e., in one plane). (see pinnate, ternate)

panicle

1. In flowering plants excluding Asteraceae, Cyperaceae, Poaceae, and some other groups, a branched inflorescence in which the basal or lateral flowers (or some of them) open before the terminal or central flowers on any axis. (see cyme) 2. In Asteraceae, Cyperaceae, Poaceae, and some other groups, a panicle-like inflorescence is one in which at least some of the inflorescence units (e.g., heads in Asteraceae; spikelets in Cyperaceae and Poaceae), instead of individual flowers, are attached (stalked or unstalked) to branches and not directly to the main axis of the inflorescence and in which floral development may or may not proceed as in 1.

papillate

Pertaining to a surface (e.g., of a leaf, stigma, fruit) bearing small, rounded or conic protuberances (papillae).

pappus

In Asteraceae, the aggregate of structures such as awns, bristles, or scales arising from the top of the inferior ovary, in place of the calyx.

parasite

A plant that benefits by taking resources from a physical connection to a host plant of another species; green parasites (hemiparasites) derive water and dissolved inorganic substances (e.g., mineral nutrients) from the connection and often are able to survive without it, while non-green parasites (holoparasites) obtain in addition energy-rich, organic compounds (products of photosynthesis) from the connection and cannot survive without it; the connection may or may not involve a fungal intermediate, and may or may not be detrimental to the host.

parietal

Pertaining to placentas on the inside surface of the ovary wall in a compound ovary with one or more chambers.

peat

Material formed by the partial decomposition in water of plant tissues, especially mosses (Sphagnum) or sedges.

peatland

Moss- or herb-dominated freshwater wetland characterized by nutrient-deficient substrates and the accumulation of peat; often said (elsewhere, not in TJM2) to be bogs if acidic, fens if basic.

pedicel

Stalk of an individual flower in an inflorescence, or the corresponding structure in fruit. (see peduncle, ray)

peduncle

Stalk of an individual flower borne singly, not in an inflorescence, or of an entire inflorescence, or the corresponding structure in fruit; the stalk subtending an involucre (e.g., in Asteraceae, Polygonaceae). (see pedicel, ray)

peltate

With the stalk attached toward the middle, not at a margin, of a flat structure such as an indusium, scale, or leaf.

pendent

Drooping, hanging, or suspended from a point of attachment above. (e.g., Amelanchier utahensis fruit)

perennial

Completing life cycle (germination through death) in more than two years or growing seasons, generally non-woody (at least above ground) to woody; includes perennial herbs as well as subshrubs to trees; the abbreviation "per" only refers to perennial herb, not to the word "perennial" alone. (see annual, biennial)

perianth

Calyx and corolla collectively, whether or not they are distinguishable.

perianth part

An individual member of a perianth; used whether or not calyx and corolla are distinguishable, but usually when they are not.

perigynium

Variously shaped, sac-like structure enclosing the ovary and achene in Carex and Kobresia.

persistent

Not falling off; remaining attached. (see deciduous, ephemeral)

petal

Individual member of the corolla, whether fused or not; if fused, often equal in number to the number of corolla lobes; often conspicuously colored. (see sepal)

petiole

Leaf stalk, connecting leaf blade to stem; sometimes more or less indistinct.

phyllary

In Asteraceae, a bract of the involucre.

pinna (pinnae)

In ferns, primary division of a compound or dissected frond blade.

pinnate

Feather-like; pertaining to veins, lobes, leaflets, or other structures arranged in two dimensions (i.e., in one plane) along either side of an axis; a leaf is odd-pinnate if there is a terminal leaflet, even-pinnate if there is not, and either odd- or even-pinnate may be 1-pinnate (blade divided into primary leaflets), 2-pinnate (primary leaflets divided into secondary leaflets), 3-pinnate (secondary leaflets divided into tertiary leaflets), etc. (see compound leaf, palmate, ternate, plumose)

pinnule

In ferns, secondary division of a compound or dissected frond blade, primary division of a pinna.

pinnulet

In ferns, tertiary division of a compound or dissected frond blade, secondary division of a pinna, primary division of a pinnule.

pistil

Female reproductive structure of a flower, composed of an ovule-containing ovary at the base, one or more pollen-receiving stigmas at the tip, and generally one or more styles between ovary and stigma. A flower may have one or more simple pistils (each a single, free carpel with a single ovary chamber, placenta, and stigma) or one compound pistil (two or more fused or partially fused carpels, the exact number often equaling the number of ovary lobes, ovary chambers, placentas, styles, or stigmas).

pistillate

Pertaining to flowers, inflorescences, or plants with fertile pistils but sterile or missing stamens. (see staminate) (e.g., Salix laevigata flower)

placenta

Structure or area to which ovules are attached in an ovary; variously shaped and positioned.

planoconvex

Flat or nearly so on one side, rounded on the other. (e.g., Carex leporinella perigynium)

pleated

Having accordion-like folds.

plumose

Plume-like, usually with the parts arrayed in three dimensions around an axis, or in tufts held together at the base; usually pertaining to small, finely divided structures, such as certain stigmas and pappus elements. (see pinnate)

pollen (pollen grain)

In gymnosperms and angiosperms, structure containing the sperm; when sperm fertilizes an egg, the egg and surrounding ovule normally develop into a seed.

pollen sac

Each of the one, two, or four pollen-bearing portion(s) of an anther.

pollination

Placement of pollen, by an insect, the wind, or other vector, on a stigmatic or ovular surface, through which pollen tube growth and fertilization may occur; self-pollination involves only one plant, cross-pollination occurs between plants.

pollinium (pollinia)

Especially in Asclepias and related genera, and in Orchidaceae, a mass of coherent pollen grains disseminated as a unit.

polyploid

Having three or more sets of chromosomes; 3n, 4n, etc. (see diploid, haploid, n)

pome

In Rosaceae, a fleshy, indehiscent fruit, such as an apple or pear; derived from a compound, inferior ovary (represented as 2–5 papery-walled, radiating segments alternating with fleshy material) and surrounding hypanthium (represented as outer fleshy material and skin). (see berry, drupe) (e.g., Amelanchier utahensis fruit)

prickle

Sharp-pointed, stiff or somewhat flexible projection, originating at the epidermis, derived from epidermal cells and therefore neither subtending an axillary bud or branch nor subtended by a leaf or leaf scar, without leaves, leaf scars, buds, or branches; loosely used for any sharp projection. (see armed, spine, thorn) (e.g., Rosa woodsii stem)

prostrate

Lying flat on the ground. (see ascending, decumbent)

protandrous

Pertaining to a bisexual flower in which pollen release precedes stigma receptivity, or to a plant with staminate and pistillate flowers in which this is true, with the result that cross-pollination is favored.

protogynous

Pertaining to a bisexual flower in which stigma receptivity precedes pollen release, or to a plant with staminate and pistillate flowers in which this is true, with the result that cross-pollination is favored.

proximal

Closer to the base, origin, or point of attachment, or farther away from the edge or tip. (see distal)

puberulent

Minutely hairy.

raceme

In flowering plants excluding Asteraceae, Cyperaceae, Poaceae, and some other groups, an unbranched inflorescence in which the flowers are borne on pedicels and nearly always open from the bottom to the top of the inflorescence. (see panicle, spike) 2. In Asteraceae, Cyperaceae, Poaceae, and some other groups, a raceme-like inflorescence is one in which the inflorescence units (e.g., heads in Asteraceae; spikelets in Cyperaceae and Poaceae), instead of individual flowers, are stalked and attached directly to the main axis of the inflorescence, not to branches, and in which floral development may or may not proceed as in 1.

rachis

In ferns, primary axis of a compound or dissected frond blade.

radial

Divisible into mirror-image halves in three or more ways. (see asymmetric, bilateral, biradial)

radiant head

In Asteraceae, a discoid head with a peripheral ring of flowers having much enlarged, often bilateral corollas.

radiate head

In Asteraceae, a head composed of central disk flowers and marginal ray flowers. (see disciform head, discoid head, liguliflorous head, radiant head)

rank

1. A row or column of parts along an axis — e.g., leaves on an erect stem arranged in four vertical rows are 4-ranked. (see alternate, opposite) 2. In classification, a taxonomic level — e.g., family, genus, species, subspecies, variety. (see taxon)

rare

Extremely unlikely to be present in appropriate habitats, often restricted to a small number of sites. (see endangered, threatened, uncommon)

ray

Each of a number of radiating axes, as a primary branch in a compound umbel. ray 1. Each of a number of radiating axes, as a primary branch in a compound umbel. (see pedicel, peduncle) 2. In Asteraceae, the flat, strap- or fan-shaped, often 3-lobed outer portion of the corolla of a ray flower.

ray flower

In Asteraceae, a generally pistillate or sterile, bilateral flower with a flat, strap- or fan-shaped, often 3-lobed outer portion of the corolla (ray); appearing in a ring around a central cluster of disk flowers. (see ligulate flower, disk flower)

receptacle

1. In individual flowers, the structure to which flower parts are attached. 2. In heads or head-like inflorescences, especially in Asteraceae, the structure to which flowers or sometimes heads are attached.

recurved

Gradually curved downward or backward.

reduced

Smaller, less lobed, simpler, etc.

reflexed

Abruptly bent or curved downward or backward.

reniform

Kidney-shaped; often pertaining to a leaf in which the blade base on both sides of the petiole is rounded and concave. (see cordate)

rhizome

1. In seed plants, stem that is often elongate, more or less horizontal, usually underground; distinguished from roots by bearing of leaves, leaf scars, axillary buds, etc. (see stolon). 2. In ferns, stem that is located underground, embedded in leaf litter, on rocks or in rock crevices, or on trees or tree branches, often scaly or hairy; distinguished from roots by bearing of fronds (roots rarely bear fronds), and their greater diameter.

rib

1. Ridge, as on a fruit. 2. Raised vein, as on a leaf or perianth part. (e.g., Carex hendersonii perigynium)

riparian

Pertaining to communities that occupy the banks, channels, and flood plains of waterways.

root

Generally underground axis or axes of a plant; distinguished from stems by not bearing leaves, leaf scars, axillary buds, flowers, etc.; generally growing into the ground from the base of a stem, its functions include anchorage, absorption of water and nutrients, and food storage. (see bulb, corm, rhizome, caudex, tuber, stolon)

rosette

A radiating cluster of leaves generally at or near ground level.

rotate

Wheel-shaped, spreading, or saucer-shaped; often applied to a fused corolla with a short or nonexistent tube and a spreading limb. (see funnel-shaped, salverform)

ruderal

A plant, usually alien, occurring in waste areas, along roadsides, and in other places disturbed by humans; pertaining to such a plant.

sagittate

Arrowhead-shaped, with two basal lobes oriented nearly parallel to the long axis. (see hastate)

salverform

Having a slender tube and an abruptly spreading, flat limb; often applied to a fused corolla. (see funnel-shaped, rotate)

savanna

Vegetation dominated by various species of grasses with scattered individual trees; with less canopy cover than a woodland (canopies do not touch).

scabrous

Rough to the touch, generally owing to short stiff hairs. (e.g., Brickellia pappus)

scale

1. Wide, appressed, membranous, epidermal outgrowth (e.g., Cheilanthes covillei) (see hair). 2. Structure partially or entirely covering an over-wintering bud (bud scale) (e.g., Salix goodingii bud). 3. In